As so often in Australia’s history, Melbourne was founded through deception when adventurer John Batman, an Australian fluent in several aboriginal dialects, made a “deal” with aborigines to lease land on behalf of investors.

While offering the Aborigines any compensation at all was progressive in a colonial culture that preferred to simply run them off the land, the fact that the native people had little understanding of rents, leases or indeed, the concept that land was something to be bought, sold and leased at all, made his arrangements no less exploitive. In return for a long term lease of 240,000 hectares of the finest grazing land in Australia, Batman gave the aborigines axes, salt, flour, blankets and jewelry. The total value of the goods was said to have been around £200.

Colonial administrators later declared his leases illegal, claiming that the government, not the Aborigines, were the true owners of the land. After paying Batman compensation, they took over the lands and founded a settlement as the seat of regional government. The settlement became the city of Melbourne in 1837, named after Viscount Melbourne, the British prime minister at the time.

A sensible grid plan
Melbourne’s location was its strongest advantage. While the “acquired” farmland was of excellent quality, the city’s location on the banks of the Yarra River and well protected Port Phillip Bay contributed to its rapid commercial development. The influx of energetic immigrants and eager investors from England were determinants in the economic growth of the young city.

Once the city had 5,000 residents, city planners intervened and imposed a strict grid plan to check chaotic growth in every direction. Melbourne’s planners decreed that every main street would be exactly 30 metres wide, with perpendicular side streets one third that width. The strict grid plan has been in place ever since.

Melbourne became the capital of the new Victoria Colony in 1851. As luck would have it, miners in the outback came upon a rich seam of gold just four days later. Melbourne prospered like no other city on the continent, even after the gold rush waned.

A second boom was sparked by industrial development and immigration after World War II. Melbourne’s population more than tripled, and the plains around the Yarra River gradually grew crowded as 3 million people from 140 nations arrived to claim their piece of the Australian dream.

City planners again stepped in, authorising the construction and development of suburbs and satellite towns. In the downtown commercial districts, Melbourne began building upward and skyscrapers appeared on the horizon.

A rather unassuming city, Melbourne’s grand sights are few in comparison to stylish Sydney. Of course, there is still a great deal to see, including the Melbourne Museum, the State Parliament, the royal exhibition buildings, the Stock Market, majestic St. Patrick’s Cathedral and Flinders Street Station. Freshwater Place is a luxury residential complex, with a striking, elegant design that makes it Australia’s thinnest building as well as one of its tallest.

Melbourne is well known for book shops, live shows and the arts. Many northerners desperate for culture travel south to Melbourne for their arts fix. Melbourne hosts a world class writers festival and comedy festival.

Melbourne is also renowned for sports. The annual Melbourne Formula 1 Grand Prix held at the Albert Park Circuit is famous around the world, but there are many more sporting highlights to experience.

The professional tennis season starts here with the Australian Open, drawing the best players in the world to compete in the first of four major tournaments. Local sports attract an even greater following.

When the Magpies, Bombers and Kangaroos take the field, life is put on hold. Melbourne’s football players have always been their sports heroes, but cricket and rugby are also popular. The Grand Final of the Australian Football League (AFL) takes place each year at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. One of the eight Melbourne teams usually participates.
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After climbing 508 metres up the Taipei 101 tower, the highest structure in the world, it can be seen easily from anywhere in the city, one can look down on the genuine Taipei amidst all the modern buildings: temples, markets, the National Palace Museum and in between them, the many old streets and lanes where everyday life in Taipei actually unfolds.

Initial steps
There was a swamp here about 300 years ago, right where one of Asia’s most modern cities now stands. Only the Pingpu, the original people of Formosa, who lived in the higher lying regions around the Taipei Basin, were able to reach this area by canoe.

Han Chinese from China came later to fish and trade, but they stayed on the banks of the Tarsui River and did not venture into the area of modern Taipei. In 1709, a Chinese farmer named Chen Lai Chang from Chuanchou laid the foundations of a farm house in Takala, which is now central Taipei. From then onwards, the number of migrants continually grew. The original settlement was known as Manka.

From Manka to Tataocheng
The governance of Manka and the surrounding region was mainly handled by immigrants from various parts of mainland China. Because of differing views regarding the future of the administrative structure, tensions between the residents soon escalated. The violent confrontations that resulted came to an end in 1823.

One of the groups that was defeated fled from Manka, on the bank of the Tamsui River, to Tataocheng. There they began to make the land farmable land laid the foundations for a flourishing community. Tataocheng surpassed Manka in the nineteenth century, and became the centre of Taipei Prefecture in 1875.

Fast modernisation
When the Japanese colonised Taipei in 1895, they built their main district in Taipei, and the city continued to develop steadily thereafter, even after the departure of the occupiers in 1945 and after the break with mainland China. Within a hundred years, the once rural district had developed into the administrative, economic and cultural centre of Taiwan.

Manka, Tataocheng and Chengnei have all lost their original appearance, but a number of historically important places have been preserved, including the Lin Family Villa and Garden, once the home of a very powerful clan in the nineteenth century, as well as the Peace Park and the 1919 Presidential Palace.

Modern city with old traditions

Today, all glass office high rises, luxury condominiums and modern shopping districts are situated along wide, tree lined boulevards. Elegant restaurants, stylish nightclubs and appearances by international stars are all part of people’s lives. Yet the traditional culture and way of life carries on below the contemporary surface.

Everywhere you go, you stumble on timeless scenes: believers praying to their gods in ancient temples, long religious processions winding their way through the streets to the accompaniment of firecrackers, and little shops offering herbal medicines that have been relied upon for millennia. Clearly, this is one of the oldest cultures in the world.

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The Lithuanian city of Vilnius exudes southern charm under the northern sun. Positioned in the natural amphitheatre of the surrounding Lithuanian hills, Vilnilus has much to offer tourists interested in classical architecture.

Vilnius, which can look back on a thousand years of Lithuanian history, can boast one of the largest historical town centres in Eastern Europe. Among its almost 1,500 buildings are representatives of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Vilnius has wonderful examples of architecture from the Gothic, Renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and Jugendstil periods, all of which are located within easy walking distance of the town centre. The uniqueness of the Old City of Vilnius led to its inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994.

Heathens and Christians.
After most of Europe had adopted Christianity and prayed to a single Christian God, the inhabitants of Vilnius continued to pray to their pantheon of heathen gods. For centuries, it mattered little. Founded in the eleventh century as a walled fortress at the convergence of the Vilnia and Neris Rivers, the city has always been well protected from invaders.

Nevertheless, it wasn’t until Vilnius became the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Prince Gediminas in 1323 that other nations took an interest in its economic potential. The German confederation, Poland and the Russian czar all cast their greedy eyes on Vilnius, each wanting a share of its wealth and prosperity. Merchants, businessmen and priests arrived in droves, and with them came Christian missionaries. Soon afterward, most Lithuanians finally became Christian.

The Jesuits in Vilnius.
As a result, unlike many of the other cities in the Baltic region, Vilnius became an eastern outpost of the Roman Catholic Church, and a multitude of glorious baroque churches and buildings greets visitors today. In the wake of the Reformation, a period of intensive building activity was begun under the patronage of the Jesuit order.

Jesuit activities were also at the heart of Vilnius’ intellectual revival, as the first Jesuit University was founded in 1579. Today, the University Quarter is recognized as a one of a kind architectural ensemble. Its buildings were inspired primarily by the styles of the early Italian baroque. Its courtyards, the church of St. John the Baptist, the clock tower, the observatory and the library are unparalleled anti City of churches. Vilnius lost its political significance following the union of Lithuania with Poland in 1569.

From this point onwards, rulers and occupying forces came and went. The city suffered greatly, again and again bowing to the will of more powerful nations. The construction of churches, however, continued unabated and Vilnius became known as “the Rome of the East”, a city noted for its abundance of churches and cloisters. Rapid growth continued to attract craftsmen, artists and labourers to the city, and by the beginning of the nineteenth century, Vilnius was the third most populous city in eastern Europe: only Moscow and St. Petersburg were larger.

Vilnius today.
After fifty years of occupation by the Soviet Union, Lithuania gained its independence in 1990, and Vilnius was declared the capital of the modern, democratic state. Lithuanians are busy restoring their city today, in full recognition of the importance of history.

More than buildings need to be restored; the very identity of Vilnius needs to be revived as well. As the Lithuanian government proudly proclaims, “here we are not only repairing the facades, but also the foundations”. The president of Lithuania resides in a residence near the towers of the university, in the midst of the lively Old City. An office and business quarter has recently been established nearby, on the opposite bank of the Neris River. Vilnius, already a growing tourist destination, has set its sight on once again becoming the economic centre of the Baltic.
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Located in the centre of Europe, Vienna is both a lively modern metropolis and a city known for its cafes, historic areas, beautiful parks, elegant squares and romantic courtyards.

Vienna means cafe culture, music and wine. Where else can one so happily spend all day sitting in a cafe, reading a magazine, sipping a Viennese coffee or drinking a glass or two of vino?

Roman Vindobona, founded in the year 15 CE, was completely destroyed by the Germanic migrations of the fourth and fifth centuries. With the Roman legions long gone, only a small settlement remained. The name Vindobona is likely a version of the Celtic “Vedunia”, which means “torrent”, a reference to the settlement’s position on the banks of the famous Danube River.

Vienna was a city of doubtful reputation at the end of the twelfth century. Its ruler, Duke Leopold V, was involved in the kidnap of the English king, Richard Lionheart, on his way back from the Crusades. The two noblemen had butted heads during the Third Crusade.

Forced to stop in Vienna, Richard was recognised and seized. An enormous ransom was paid for his release, roughly twenty five tons of silver, an enormous sum for those days. The duke used the silver to start a mint, the vast profits from which enabled him to expand the city and build new fortification walls. Although Emperor Henry VI had given his blessing to the duke’s illegal activities, the pope had not, and in 1194 Leopold V was excommunicated.

The first version of Vienna’s cathedral was completed in 1147 as a small parish church, and was far too large for the tiny population of Vienna at that time. The city would not become important for another ten years, after it was named capital of the Duchy of Austria. A hundred years later, the original church was replaced by one built in the Romanesque style. Its facade, known as the Roman Towers, was preserved when construction of a Gothic church began in 1340.

In 1359, Duke Rudolf IV laid the cornerstone for the soaring Gothic nave, which was completed in 1474. Vienna’s early dukes had not been successful in elevating the town to a bishop’s see, which was necessary for St. Stephen’s to be declared a cathedral; it had always been simply a church within the diocese of Passau. It did not become the seat of a bishop, and thus formally a cathedral, until 1469. St. Stephen’s has undergone many changes since then. As tastes changed, the interior and exterior were altered to reflect the times. Recent restoration has uncovered traces of older versions of Vienna’s beloved “Steffl”, as the church is known locally.

The sixteenth century was very much focused on rebuilding Vienna’s fortifications, which had been damaged during the Turkish siege of 1529. Work was not quite finished when the Turks returned in 1684. They were stopped just outside Vienna, the gateway to Europe, and never got that far again. Bombardment from Turkish positions in what is today the Wienerwald (”Vienna Woods”) left the city badly damaged in the wake of the Turkish retreat.

Rebuilding Vienna brought a large number of baroque architects to the city. The most stunning buildings from that era are noble and royal residences, including the Schonbrunn, Liechtenstein, Schwarzenberg and Belvedere Palaces.
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Vanuatu consists of more than eighty islands, located about 2000 kilometres north-east of Queensland. The largest island, Espiritu Santo, is 4010 square kilometres. Australia is a mainly a flat land, but most of Vanuatu’s islands are dominated by mountainous regions. The highest peak, Mt Tabwemasana (1880 metres), is on Espiritu Santo. The Earth beneath Vanuatu is unstable, and there is volcanic and earthquake activity.

Vanuatu has been inhabited for more than 3000 years. Separate communities developed, but trade between islands was common, and canoes were used to move people and produce.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to come to Vanuatu, in 1606. Next I came the French in 1768, then the British led by Captain James Cook in 1774. Cook named the islands the ‘New Hebrides’. During the 1840s, traders and missionaries made contact.

From 1887 to 1980 control over the New Hebrides was shared by France and Britain. During World War II, the New Hebrides were a key base for the Allies in the battles to prevent the Japanese taking control of the South Pacific and Australia. Vanuatu gained independence on 30 July 1980.

About 200 000 people live in Vanuatu, the same number as in Hobart. Most people live on the islands of Efate, Espiritu Santo, Malakula and Tanna. Unlike Australia, 95 per cent of people in Vanuatu are indigenous. They are known as Ni-Vanuatu, and like Aboriginal Australians they have a special relationship with their land.

The remaining five per cent consist of French, Australian, New Zealand, Vietnamese and Chinese people, as well as other Pacific Islanders. Three main languages are spoken — English, French and Bislama (a form of pidgin English).

The literacy rate in Vanuatu is {poor|low}, and most students do not attend secondary school. But, in Port Vila, there is a technical college and a campus of the University of the South Pacific.

The economy is centred around farming, and major agricultural exports are beef and cocoa. Most people are involved in subsistence agriculture. There is also a large timber industry, and tourism is important to the economy, providing work in tourist areas, such as Vila.

The Country of Tonga
Tonga lies about 650 kilometres east of Fiji. It consists of 150 islands, and 40 of them are inhabited. The capital city is Nuku’alofa, which is on Tongatapu, the main island.

Polynesians first settled in Tonga about 3500 years ago. Captain James Cook made several visits during the 1770s and named the islands the Friendly Islands. Tonga gained full independence from Britain on 4 June 1970, but remains a member of the Commonwealth. Kings and queens have ruled Tonga for more than 1000 years. The reigning king is Taufa’ahau Tupou IV.

The population of Tonga is approximately 110 000, which is similar to the population of Cairns. Most people are of Polynesian descent, and they speak English and Polynesian. They are committed Christians with the main denomination being the Free Wesleyan Church.

The economy of Tonga revolves around agriculture and fishing, with pumpkins, coconuts and bananas being major crops. Education is important in Tonga, and school is compulsory for children between the ages of six and 14.

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Thailand is a kingdom in southeast Asia on the Indochinese and Malay peninsulas. Through most of its history Thailand was called Siam. The people call themselves Thai, which in their language means “the free people.” In 1948 the Thai government changed the name of the country to Thailand.

Thailand has an area of about 511,770 square km, which makes it not quite as large as the American state of Texas. About sixty one million people live there, which is nearly three times as many as the population of Australia.

The People of Thailand
The first people in the region of Thailand were Negritos, a Negroid pygmy people. The Negritos became mixed with invading Mongols and tribes from China to produce the modern race of Siamese. There are two main groups in the population, the true Thai and the Lao. Thailanders are rather short, but well built. They have brownish skin and straight black hair.

Thailanders are an independent and courageous people, and there are no caste divisions in Thailand. All the people, including the women, have equal rights. Thailand is a very musical country, although its music sometimes sounds strange to Western ears, and the people are artistic dancers.

Education in Thailand is provided mainly by the Thai government through the Ministry of Education. A free basic education of 12 is guaranteed by the Thai constitution, and a minimum of nine years’ school attendance is mandatory.

Thailanders are noted for their artistic abilities, ranging from the making of jewelry to the architecture of the beautiful Buddhist temples. There are many religious festivals in Thailand, with colorful costumes and ceremonies.

The people speak the Siamese language, which is a member of the Indochinese family of languages. Religion plays a very important role in Thai life. Religion is considered an essential foundation of society, it is not only the major moral force of Thai family and community but has also contributed to the molding of freedom loving, individualistic, and tolerant people for many centuries.

Hinayana Buddhism is the national religion of Thailand, but there is total religious freedom and all major religions can be found in practice. There is absolute freedom of religion - Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and other faiths are practiced and protected by the constitution. Buddhism is the faith of 95 percent of the population, 4 percent are Muslims, 0.5 percent and Christians, and the remainder Hindus, Sikhs and other religion.

Despite the fact that Buddhism is the faith of majority, both the king and the government uphold and support all the religions accepted by the people. Amidst rich diversity of beliefs, until recently people of Thailand have always lived together in peace and harmony.

How they Live
Thailand is largely a nation of farmers, fishermen, and lumbermen. The principal foods of the people are rice and fish. Nearly all of the farm land is planted with rice. In addition to the large quantities eaten by the people, Thailand exports a large quantity of rice as well as electronic products. Other farm crops include cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, corn, soybeans, peanuts, and sesame seeds. The rivers of Thailand are full of fish, and large catches also are made in the Gulf of Thailand (previously the Gulf of Siam). Much of Thailand’s wonderful food contains seafood dishes.

Three-quarters of Thailand is covered with forests from which come the country’s famous teakwood, as well as bamboo, ebony, rosewood, boxwood, and Palmyra palm. The forests provide important quantities of lac (a resin deposited on trees by the lac insect) , rubber, oils, dyes. and tanning bark.

Thailand has large and varied mineral resources, the most important of which are tin, wolfram ore, coal, copper, antimony, gold, iron, manganese, molybdenum, silver, lead, gypsum, and lignite. There is a growing hi-tech economy and foreign countries have been encouraged to build factories there for the production of chemicals, textiles, and other goods.

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